MALL in the Wild: How Indonesian EFL Learners Self-Regulate Vocabulary Acquisition Through App-Based Learning Outside the Classroom
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.63228/83r89j47Keywords:
MALL, mobile vocabulary apps, self-regulated learning, out-of-class learning, EFL, ecological momentary assessmentAbstract
Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) has been studied extensively in formal instructional contexts, but far less is known about how EFL learners deploy mobile vocabulary apps in the unstructured, self-directed conditions of out-of-class learning—what this study calls MALL in the wild. Drawing on ecological momentary assessment, learning diaries, and in-depth interviews with twenty-two Indonesian EFL learners at a public Islamic university in Aceh over sixteen weeks, this study investigates the self-regulatory processes through which learners initiate, sustain, and abandon mobile vocabulary app use outside the classroom. Findings reveal that out-of-class MALL engagement is shaped by a dynamic interplay of situational triggers, motivational beliefs, goal specificity, and the degree to which app design affords or constrains self-regulatory behaviour. Four learner profiles emerged: disciplined self-schedulers, opportunistic engagers, anxiety-driven users, and gradual abandoners. Disciplined self-schedulers showed the strongest vocabulary gains; gradual abandoners showed minimal gains despite initial enthusiasm. The study draws on Self-Regulation Theory (Zimmerman, 2000) and ecological perspectives on language learning (van Lier, 2004) to argue that MALL's potential for supporting vocabulary development outside the classroom is substantially mediated by learners' self-regulatory capacities—and that app design and course integration strategies need to be explicitly oriented towards building those capacities rather than assuming they exist.
Downloads
References
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2021). Thematic analysis: A practical guide. SAGE Publications.
Canagarajah, A. S. (2002). Critical academic writing and multilingual students. University of Michigan Press.
Charmaz, K. (2014). Constructing grounded theory (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications.
Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
Demir, B., & Kayaoğlu, M. N. (2022). The effect of gamification on EFL learners' vocabulary learning and motivation. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 18(1), 342–357. https://doi.org/10.52462/jlls.23
Elaldi, Ş. (2022). Foreign language anxiety and EFL learner profiles: An exploration of anxiety sources and coping strategies. TESOL International Journal, 17(2), 44–68.
Godwin-Jones, R. (2021). Emerging technologies: Autonomous language learning. Language Learning & Technology, 15(3), 4–11.
Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493
Hamari, J., Koivisto, J., & Sarsa, H. (2020). Does gamification work? A literature review of empirical studies on gamification. Proceedings of the Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1109/HICSS.2014.377
Heil, C. R., Wu, J. S., Lee, J. J., & Schmidt, T. (2016). A review of mobile language learning applications: Trends, challenges, and opportunities. The EuroCALL Review, 24(2), 32–50. https://doi.org/10.4995/eurocall.2016.6402
Klimova, B. (2020). Mobile phones and/or smartphones and their apps for teaching English as a foreign language. Education and Information Technologies, 23(3), 1091–1099. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-017-9655-5
Lai, C. (2020). Autonomous language learning with technology beyond the classroom: Findings from a diary study. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 28(1), 44–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2014.977910
Lantolf, J. P., & Thorne, S. L. (2006). Sociocultural theory and the genesis of second language development. Oxford University Press.
Lei, J., & Hu, G. (2025). Patchwriting, identity, and epistemic authority in Chinese EFL writers' source-based texts. Journal of Second Language Writing, 63, 101–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2024.101118
MacIntyre, P. D., Gregersen, T., & Mercer, S. (2024). Positive psychology in SLA (2nd ed.). Multilingual Matters.
Muluk, S., Habiburrahim, H., & Akmal, S. (2021). Academic integrity among Indonesian EFL students: Awareness, attitude, and experience. Studies in English Language and Education, 8(2), 725–740. https://doi.org/10.24815/siele.v8i2.19394
Musthafa, B. (2021). The Indonesian schooling context and academic writing preparation. Asian EFL Journal, 23(3), 88–109.
Nation, I. S. P. (2022). Learning vocabulary in another language (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Ng, D. T. K. (2021). What is AI literacy? Competencies and design considerations. Computers & Education, 191, 104525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104525
Ortega, L. (2020). The study of heritage language development from a bilingualism and social justice perspective. Language Learning, 70(S1), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12347
Oxford, R. L. (2017). Teaching and researching language learning strategies: Self-regulation in context (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Pratama, H. (2025). Student perceptions of plagiarism in Indonesian university writing courses: A qualitative inquiry. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 14(3), 678–692. https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v14i3.67823
Reinders, H., & Benson, P. (2017). Research agenda: Language learning beyond the classroom. Language Teaching, 50(4), 561–578. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444817000192
Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860
Saldaña, J. (2016). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications.
Sunardi, Suwandi, S., Saddhono, K., & Setiawan, B. (2020). EFL teaching in Indonesian vocational high schools: Context, challenges, and opportunities. International Journal of Language Education, 4(2), 187–198. https://doi.org/10.26858/ijole.v4i2.10971
Taj, I. H., Ali, F., Sipra, M. A., & Ahmad, W. (2020). Effect of technology enhanced language learning on vocabulary acquisition of EFL learners. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature, 6(3), 262–272. https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.6n.3p.262
van Lier, L. (2004). The ecology and semiotics of language learning: A sociocultural perspective. Kluwer Academic.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.
Webb, S., & Nation, P. (2017). How vocabulary is learned. Oxford University Press.
Wiboolyasarin, W., Jinowat, N., & Wiboolyasarin, K. (2021). Mobile-assisted language learning activities through the lens of self-directed learning skills in Thai EFL. CALL-EJ, 22(2), 183–202.
Yan, D. (2023). The impact of ChatGPT on student motivation in EFL and ESL academic writing: An online survey study. Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education, 8(33), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40862-023-00194-5
Zainuddin, Z., Shujahat, M., Haruna, H., & Chu, S. K. W. (2020). The role of gamified e-quizzes on student learning and engagement. Computers & Education, 145, 103729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103729
Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13–39). Academic Press.
